Learning to Teach: The Influence of a University-School Partnership Project on Pre-Service Elementary Efficacy for Literacy InstructionTeachersâ•Ž

Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning; therefore, some of the most powerful influences on the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy may be the experience of teaching during field placements and student teaching. Unfortunately, pre-service teachers may not be exposed to good role models for teaching during field placements. This article describes a qualitative study of the influence of vicarious experiences modeled by a teacher educator and master teachers on the development of pre-service teachers’ sense of efficacy for literacy instruction. Results indicate that the vicarious experiences positively influenced pre-service teachers’ efficacy for effective literacy instruction that was maintained through student teaching. The Influence of a University-School Partnership Project • 23 Learning to Teach: The Influence of a University-School Partnership Project on Pre-Service Elementary Teachers’ Efficacy for Literacy Instruction Denise Johnson, Ed.D. The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA Abstract Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning; therefore, some of the most powerful influences on the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy may be the experience of teaching during field placements and student teaching. Unfortunately, pre-service teachers may not be exposed to good role models for teaching during field placements. This article describes a qualitative study of the influence of vicarious experiences modeled by a teacher educator and master teachers on the development of pre-service teachers’ sense of efficacy for literacy instruction. Results indicate that the vicarious experiences positively influenced pre-service teachers’ efficacy for effective literacy instruction that was maintained through student teaching.Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning; therefore, some of the most powerful influences on the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy may be the experience of teaching during field placements and student teaching. Unfortunately, pre-service teachers may not be exposed to good role models for teaching during field placements. This article describes a qualitative study of the influence of vicarious experiences modeled by a teacher educator and master teachers on the development of pre-service teachers’ sense of efficacy for literacy instruction. Results indicate that the vicarious experiences positively influenced pre-service teachers’ efficacy for effective literacy instruction that was maintained through student teaching. The role of the teacher is critical in ensuring that children are successful readers. But for some children, reading acquisition will be easy while others will find it difficult. Either way, all children have a right to well-prepared teachers who provide reading instruction that meets their individual needs (International Reading Association, 2000). According to a synthesis of research on teacher preparation for reading instruction, newly graduated classroom teachers entering the field should have the following content knowledge: conceptual understandings about the foundations of language development; proficiency with formal and informal assessment tools to 24 • Reading Horizons • V50.1 • 2010 determine readers’ reading strengths and weaknesses; and expertise with instructional strategies and materials for readers of all backgrounds and abilities (International Reading Association, 2007). The report indicates that teacher preparation programs that provide this content knowledge will produce teachers who are better prepared to teach reading well. However, a college degree and content knowledge does not necessarily equate to a highly effective literacy teacher as having the necessary knowledge and skills to perform a task does not ensure that the task will be performed successfully (Bandura, 1986). What is often overlooked is the interaction between teachers’ skills and knowledge and their beliefs. A teachers’ sense of efficacy may determine how much motivation, effort, and persistence they put into this process. Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy suggests that efficacy may be most malleable early in learning; therefore, some of the most powerful influences on the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy for literacy instruction may be the experience of teaching during pre-service field placements and student teaching. Unfortunately, pre-service teachers are often exposed to poor role models for teaching literacy during field placements (Britzman, 2003; Donovan, 1999; Maloch, Fine, & Flint, 2003; Moore, 2003). Consequently, knowing that self-efficacy beliefs are so central to intentional action, the early formation of positive self-efficacy cannot be left to chance. Vicarious experiences in the form of observations and cognitive modeling by teacher educators and master teachers can positively influence the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers (Henson, 2001; Labone, 2004). However, there is little research linking the process of learning to teach reading with a pre-service teacher’s efficacy beliefs. This article describes a study of the influence of vicarious experiences on the development of pre-service teachers’ sense of efficacy for literacy instruction. Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Research has found efficacy to have powerful effects on teacher behaviors. Efficacious teachers are resourceful, cause-and-effect thinkers who persist when things do not go smoothly and persevere in the face of setbacks (Bandura, 1993; Guskey, 1988). They more effectively plan and organize for instruction and implement innovation to meet the needs of their students (Allinder, 1994; Guskey, 1988; Stein & Wang, 1988). Efficacious teachers are also optimistic, confident, and enthusiastic about teaching and are committed to stay in the profession (Allinder, 1994; Coladarci, 1992; Evans & Tribble, 1986; Glickman & Tamashiro, 1982; Guskey, 1984; Hall, Burley, Villeme, & Brockmeier, 1992). Teachers with a higher sense of efficacy The Influence of a University-School Partnership Project • 25 also impact student learning by using more positive classroom management strategies (Emmer, 1990), by working longer with students who are struggling (Gibson & Dembo, 1984), by being less critical of students when they make errors (Ashton & Webb, 1986), and are less likely to refer a struggling student to special education (Meijer & Foster, 1988; Podell & Soodak, 1993). Teachers’ sense of efficacy has also been related to important student outcomes such as student achievement (Armor, Conroy-Oseguera, Cox, King, McDonell, Pascal, Pauly, & Zellman, 1976; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Moore & Esselman, 1992; Ross, 1992), student motivation (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), and students’ own sense of efficacy (Anderson, Greene, & Loewen, 1988). Given the obvious importance of teachers’ sense of efficacy for optimal motivation in teaching, it makes sense that the formation of positive self-efficacy beliefs would be critical during teacher preparation and student teaching experiences. However, teacher efficacy is context and subject-matter specific. Research has shown that beginning teachers with a high sense of efficacy, as measured by a general teaching efficacy scale, rated the quality of their preparation higher than those who were less efficacious (Burley, Hall, Villeme, & Brockmeier, 1991; Hall, et al., 1992). But, research on beginning teachers with a high sense of efficacy for literacy, as measured by a scale specific to teaching literacy, did not rate the quality of their preparation as significant (Tschannan-Moran & Johnson, n.d.). Unfortunately, pre-service teachers in elementary education are exposed to varying contexts and teaching practices in practicum or field placements the quality of which teacher educators may or may not be aware. It is of utmost importance to understand the mediating role teacher educators and significant others (i.e. mentor or supervising teachers) can play to promote teacher efficacy within specific content areas. The Development of Efficacy According to Bandura (1997), the major influences on efficacy beliefs are the attributional analysis, or the different ways in which people explain and interpret the four sources of information about efficacy — mastery experience, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal — within a specific context. The most powerful source of efficacy information comes from mastery experiences or hands-on teaching opportunities in classrooms with students. Additionally, a teacher’s biases contribute to self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997). Efficacy is boosted if a successful teaching performance is attributed to internal or controllable causes such as ability or effort, whereas efficacy may be weakened if success is attributed 26 • Reading Horizons • V50.1 • 2010 to luck or the intervention of others (Bandura, 1993; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Vicarious experiences are those in which the target activity such as a particular instructional strategy is modeled by someone else. The impact of the model on the observer’s efficacy depends on the degree to which the observer identifies with the model (Bandura, 1977). For example, the impact will be stronger the more closely the observer identifies with the model. Social persuasion may entail a pep talk or specific performance feedback from a supervisor or a colleague, or it may involve the general chatter in the teachers’ lounge or in the media about the ability of teachers to influence students. Ultimately, the potency of persuasion depends on the credibility, trustworthiness, and expertise of the persuader (Bandura, 1986). According to Tschannen-Moran, et al. (1998), “a teacher’s sense of efficacy is determined by his or her self-perception of personal teaching competence in light of the assumed requirements of an anticipated teaching task” (p. 231) (see Figure 1). The standards the teacher holds for what constitutes good teaching will influence how these two factors are weighed. Figure 1. Teacher Sense of Efficacy Model (Tschannen-Moran, et al., 1998) Sources of Efficacy Information Mastery • Experiences Vicarious • Experiences